Theories Of Motivation In High Risk Sports Psychology Essay

Theories Of Motivation In High Risk Sports Psychology EssayIntroductionThis Chapter leave alone attempt to give the reader a greater brain of the windsurfing and the definitions and theories of pauperization. It will use previous research that has been carried proscribed to examine further some of these theories and go along consistencies and in-consistencies in the champaign of motif in sports, outdoor sports and high gamble sports. It will then use this culture toPurpose of ResearchJustification clarification of TerminologyHistorical Background of WindsurfingIn the late 1940s, Newman Darby discovered how to sail a three metre sailboat without using a rudder by lean the sail towards the fore and aft of the boat. It was not until 1964 that he designed the first universal joint, a component that connects the sail to the board that bothows it to move in some(prenominal) direction (http//windsurfingmag.com/how-to/2008/03/26/windsurfing-glossary/).It was not until 1968 that C alifornian surfer Hoyle Schweitzer and Sailor Jim Drake got together and using Darbys ideas created the first windsurfer. They patented their design and in the 1970s began to produce it widely. It was Darbys thought of the Universal Joint that was at the core of their design that allowed the windsurfer to be steered without a rudder.Initially the windsurfer consisted of still one board which beginners learnt on and experts prevailed on. Everyone used the same kit up regardless of the conditions or skill. (http//www.windsurfing-academy.com/information_bank/history/the_history_of_windsurfing.asp). The board was made from polyethylene, was 12 feet (3.5m) long and weighed 60 pounds (27kg)By the late 1970s windsurfing had taken a firm check of America and Europe with one in every three households in Europe possessing a windsurfer. (http//www.windsurfing-academy.com/information_bank/history/the_history_of_windsurfing.asp, The Windsurfing Movie, 200?) The first world championships for windsurfing was held in 1973 and windsurfing became an prodigious sport for men in 1984 and in 1992 for women.Patent AbstractWind-propelled apparatus in which a mast is universally mounted on a craft and supports a boom and sail. Specifically a pair of curved booms are accurately connected athwart the mast and secure the sail there between, the position of the mast and sail world controllable by the user precisely being substantially free from pivotal restraint in the absence of such control. http//inventors.about.com/od/wstartinventions/a/windsurfing.htm breeding of WindsurfingThis section will look at how windsurfing has developed both in relation to the equipment designs and the attitudes towards it. It will also look at where windsurfing is today and attempt to cry the direction it may be heading towards.Definitions of MotivationFor the purpose of this research it is important to understand what is meant by the term motivation. This section provides several definitions for m otivation along with further information to bear in mind about the term motivationThe term Motivation is derived from the Latin word movere meaning to move (Onions 1996) cited in (Moran, 2004).The concept of motivation can be defined as The hypothetical construct used to describe the internal and/or external forces that produce the initiation, direction, inspiration and persistence of behaviour (Vallerand Losier 1999) cited in (Vallerand Rousseau, 2001)Motivation can also be defined as being concerned with those factors which initiate or energise behaviour (Moran, 2004, p. 38).Sage (1977) cited in (Festeu, 2002) states that motivation is the energizing element of personality which is reflected in individuals direction and intensity of effort.Within the field of sports psychology motivational issues are regard when a person endeavors a task at which he or she is evaluated or enters into competition with others, or attempts to attain some standard of excellence (Roberts, 2001, p .6) cited in (Moran, 2004, p. 38).Various theories of motivation will be looked at in greater detail within the next chapter Theories of Motivation.According to Roberts (2001) cited in (Moran, 2004), motivation is one of the nearly misunderstood constructs in sports psychology. Roberts (2001) states there are three reasons for this. Firstly motivation is often confused with arousal. Roberts (2001) states arousal needs to be channeled in a peculiar(prenominal) direction for motivation to occur. Secondly Roberts (2001) states that motivation cannot be enhanced through positive thinking as commonly believed. Research on goal screen background shows peoples objectives incur to be controllable and realistic to be effective. Finally some coaches believe that motivation is inherited genetically something which is also contradicted by research which shows motivation can be changed through appropriate instruction. Roberts (2001) cited in (Moran, 2004, p. 39). ArousalTheories of Motivatio nIntroductionThis section will look at the various theories of motivation that have been developed over the years. These theories are not all directly relevant to the subject of this research but are necessary to allow a greater grounds of the area and theories, both past and trustworthy, of motivation. It will also look at the different types of motivation and the different factors that affect them. It will draw on information from various studies using these theories to attempt to develop a further understanding of these theories and how they are relevant to the areas of said studies.Instinct schemeMost current sports psychology can be traced back to William James (Model, 2005). James (1890) published an article called What is instinct. James suggested that interest plays an essential role towards attention and consequent behaviour. This speculation bears many similarities to the ego Determination Theory proposed by Deci Ryan (1985). The Self Determination Theory will be fur ther discussed later in this section.Sigmund Freud (1915) provided one of the early theories of motivation reviving James theories. Freud (1915) cited in (Model, 2005) suggested that individuals are passive beings and are moved by instincts, the main two being sex and aggression. Together these form Freuds (1923) Instinct Theory (Model, 2005), (Vallerand Rousseau, 2001).A major criticism of Freuds theory is that instincts can be hard to identify. Freuds theory also fails to take into account the effect the surroundings may have on motivation. (Silva III Stevens, 2001).Need Achievement TheoryThe Need Achievement Theory considers both personality and situational factors as important predictors of behaviour. (Atkimson, 1974) cited in (Festeu, 2002). Personality refers to an individuals drive towards success and avoidance of failure.Murry 1938 Atkimson 1974 festeu(3)Drive TheoryDrive Theory is an expansion of Freuds Instinct Theory put forward by Clark hull (1948). Freuds Instinct Theory was originally named the drive theory but was later re-named. (Model, 2005).Hull concluded that motivational behaviours derive from one of four drives sex, hunger, thirst and hassle avoidance. A drive occurs and provides energy for action Hull (1938) cited in (Model, 2005). Hulls theory creates a link between instincts or drives and behaviour. According to Hulls theory, as these drives occur, such as hunger, we become motivated to reduce these drives to zero in this case by eating. This is the first theory that implies extrinsic motivation. (Model, 2005).Flaws observed within Hulls Drive theory came to send off as better understandings of arousal and its effects on people came to light. Arousal will be discussed further in the next chapter Factors That Affect Motivation in Sport. Hulls Drive Theory also did not take into account of the differing levels of motivation between different tasks and individuals. (Silva III Stevens, 2001)Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsSelf Determinati on TheoryThe Self Determination Theory is a model of human motivation that stems from the innate needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness within the environment. It provides an over-riding framework for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. (Baldwin Caldwell, 2003) The Self Determination theory proposes that these psychological needs and the social environment will determine one of many motivations. Each motivation can have vary effects on our thoughts, behaviours and feelings. These motivations fall along a continuum and are all connected to each other (Deci Ryan, 1985) cited in (Model, 2005)Self Determination Theory (cooke, Fielding).pngCited in (Cooke Fielding, 2010)As the scale above displays, motivation can be divided into six different forms from intrinsic motivation at one end of a scale to extrinsic motivation at the other end (Deci Ryan 1985) cited in (Baldwin Caldwell, 2003).Amotivation refers to no motivation at all. (Baldwin Caldwell, 2003) describe it as a wa y of describing air which is neither regulated or intentional.Extrinsic MotivationExtrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity as a means to an end and not for its own sake (Vallerand Fortier, 1998) cited in (Moran, 2004, p. 40). It can be separated into non-internalised and internalised, as displayed in the diagram above. Internalised forms of extrinsic motivation carry some intrinsic factors modify towards carriage but the primary reasons are still external.External RegulationExternal ruler is the roughly extreme form of extrinsic motivation. (Baldwin Caldwell, 2003). This refers to the doing of an activity unaccompanied to satisfy external demands such as for a reward or to avoid punishment.Introjected RegulationIntrojected regulation is based on self controlled, ego orientated behavior that is usually driven by what others may think. Introjected motivation is not autonomous but rather externally cogitate behavior usually carried out to avoid guilt of anxiety or to maintain status or feelings of self worth. (Baldwin Caldwell, 2003).Identified RegulationIdentified regulation has elements of intrinsic motivation but behavior is undertaken for primarily external reasons. (Baldwin Caldwell, 2003). An example of this is cross-training in sports. Windsurfers may partake in other exercises such as racecourse or cycling not for the enjoyment but to maintain or increase fitness for windsurfing. They may enjoy the running or cycling but this is not their primary reason for participation.Integrated RegulationIntegrated regulation is the most autonomous form of extrinsic motivation. A person carries out this behavior because it represents what they stand for. This can be demonstrated amongst volunteers for non-profit organisations. They carry out behavior for external rewards often with little compensation or direct benefit to themselves. inborn MotivationIntrinsic motivation refers to peoples reasons for undertaking an activity for itself and th e pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation (ibid., p.390) cited in (Moran, 2004, p. 39). This can also be described as the following of an activity that one finds interesting and is engaged in for the inherent satisfaction derived from participation. (Baldwin Caldwell, 2003).Factors that Affect Motivation and Participation in SportsThis section will observe the varying factors that encourage or discourage participation in sport or physical activity as a whole. It will draw on information gathered from the previous chapter and relate them directly to sport using research already carried out in the area of motivation in sports(5 buzz junkies) (8 understanding participation in sports)(The Art of Healthy Risk Taking)Motivation in Outdoor ActivitiesThis section will attempt to further explore the area of motivation towards the area of outdoor activity. It will explore motivational factors in various areas and various sports that draw from the indispensable environment to p rovide a medium to undertake the specific activities. It will also draw on research already carried out in this area to attempt to develop a greater understanding of any consistencies or in-consistencies in this area.Arousal(5 buzz junkies) (The Art of Healthy Risk Taking)(festeu 4)Risk TakingNature and risk in adventure sports Philosophy, risk adventure sportsIs Windsurfing an Extreme Sport?Windsurfing is commonly regarded as an Extreme sport however this term may be misleading. This label was attached to various ersatz sports by the media originally in North America in an effort to attract the more lucrative teenage audience. (Dant Wheaton, 2007). The term High Risk is instantaneously commonly used by researchers in the field of these sports in place of the term extreme. It can be observed that the majority of windsurfing practised by most windsurfers cannot be described as high risk due to the fairly low risk of injury. (Dant Wheaton, 2007). It is important to remember that the more hazardous conditions attempted by many windsurfers by entering the seas in winds upwards of gale force and large swells still constitutes a high risk environment to enter. With this in mind, windsurfing can only really be described as a high risk sport when undertaken in such adverse conditions that if gear failure or passenger error were to occur, self rescue would be close to an impossibility.This section will examine risk taking both real and perceived in the area of motivation and attempt to create an understanding of how this may alter individuals attitudes towards general activities and then specifically high risk sports.(The Art of Healthy Risk Taking) (To the Extremes out of the gene pool)What is even stranger is that some people go beyond beingobservers and take real risks, and expose themselves to real harm of2 endangermentone kind or another, and that they do so completely voluntarily.Why do people, of their own free will, participate in such activitiesas huck ster diving, mountaineering, bungee-jumping, white-water rafting,big wave surfing, pot-holing, base jumping, cave diving, andhang-gliding?In this respect, it is interesting that new forms of voluntary riskare continually emerging or being invented in different parts of theworld, and this seems to have been particularly true in the lastdecade or so. (Danger quest for excitement)EnvironmentThis section will examine how the natural environment can affect attitudes and motivation towards participation in activities.(To the Extremes out of the gene pool) (6 Environmental Factors)Gender Differences in Motivation(5 buzz junkies) (13 where have all the windsurfers gone)Windsurfing as a subculture rather than a sportWindsurfing is part of a group of activities born during the counter-culture movements of the 1960s Midol (1993) cited in (Wilkinson, 2010), (Dant Wheaton, 2007). Other activities in this catagory include skateboarding, snowboarding and the revivification of surfing.As Belinda Wheaton (2003)Does Windsurfing require a different motivational pattern to other sports?Sport commitment of windsurfersSports Motivation shieldFree Time Motivational ScaleSport Commitment ModelSport commitment of windsurfers (2)Research Questions